Nickel was already present in ancient times, though not recognized as such. Syrian bronze from around 3300 BC contained about two percent nickel, likely originating from copper or tin ores. Chinese writings from between 1700 and 1400 BC mention “white copper” (nickel silver).

Nickel was first isolated in pure form in 1751 by Axel Frederic Cronstedt and named after the mineral copper-nickel (Swedish: kopparnickel, today called nickeline), in which he discovered the previously unknown metal. The name copper-nickel originated from medieval miners in the Ore Mountains who mistook the ore for copper. When no copper could be extracted, they believed the ore was cursed by mountain spirits called “Nickeln.” A similar origin applies to the name cobalt (“kobold”), which is often found together with nickel.

From the mid-19th century onwards, nickel was used in coinage. The first pure nickel coin was minted in 1881.

In 1889, James Riley developed nickel-containing steels.

About two-thirds of produced nickel is used in the steel industry. Nickel improves the corrosion resistance, toughness, and heat resistance of steel.

However, the growing demand for nickel is driven by the battery industry. Nickel is a key component in the cathodes of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles. Forecasts predict that by 2030, over 30 percent of global nickel demand will come from the battery sector.

Other applications for nickel include superalloys for the aerospace industry and standard alloys for equipment in the chemical industry.

Nickel can be economically extracted from sulfide or laterite ores, with more than three-quarters of global nickel currently coming from lateritic sources. These ores are mainly found in tropical and subtropical regions. While sulfide ores generally have a higher nickel content, laterite ores are cheaper to mine. However, they require significantly more land use, and mining in tropical areas poses serious risks to biodiversity.

The most important lateritic nickel ores are garnierite and limonite, whereas
pentlandite is the main mineral in sulfide deposits.

Nickel deposits are often associated with cobalt, making both metals important by-products of one another.

Indonesia is by far the world’s leading nickel producer, extracting laterite ores. Its nickel industry is closely tied to Chinese companies, which operate numerous smelters and refineries in the country — including major sites like the Indonesia Morowali Industrial Park (IMIP) and the Indonesia Weda Bay Industrial Park. Indonesia also holds the largest nickel reserves globally.

The Philippines ranks as the second-largest producer, also focused on lateritic ores.

The Weda Bay mine, located on the Indonesian island of Halmahera, is the largest nickel mine in the world. It is operated by a joint venture between Tsingshan (China), Eramet (France), and PT Antam Tbk (a state-owned Indonesian company).

Tsingshan Holding Group, a Chinese steel giant, is the world's largest nickel producer. Norilsk Nickel (Russia) is the top producer of high-purity nickel, while Vale (Brazil) ranks third among the global producers.

Global annual nickel production stands at around 3.5 million tonnes, and demand is rising — especially driven by the battery industry.

Nickel-lean, duplex, or ultra-high-chromium stainless steels are used in construction as substitutes for austenitic steels (which contain over 8% nickel).
In the power generation and petrochemical industries, nickel-free specialty steels are sometimes used in place of conventional stainless steel.
In highly corrosive chemical environments, titanium alloys can replace nickel metal or nickel-based alloys.

Lead has been known since prehistoric times because it can be easily extracted from ores. The earliest findings come from present-day Turkey, where lead was used for jewelry and weights.

The Romans were the first to use lead on a large scale. They built water pipes with the metal and used it in tableware and jewelry. They also added lead sugar (lead(II) acetate) to sweeten wine. Due to its widespread use, it likely caused extensive health damage among the population.

In the Middle Ages, lead played an important role in alchemy. Alchemists tried to turn lead into gold.

With industrialization, the mass use of lead began. The raw material was used in printing, ammunition, the glass industry, batteries, and as paint (white lead).

In the 20th century, lead was widely used as a fuel additive in gasoline. Tetraethyl lead acted as an anti-knock agent and prevented so-called engine knocking, an uncontrolled combustion of fuel in gasoline engines that damages engine parts and increases fuel consumption. The toxicity of leaded gasoline was known when its anti-knock effect was discovered. Nevertheless, it took until the late 1970s before some countries began banning leaded gasoline.

Studies of ice cores from the Arctic show that lead pollution peaked in the early 1970s. It was 40 times higher than during the Roman Empire — mainly due to the widespread use of leaded gasoline in motor vehicles. Research indicates that lead exposure reduces intelligence.

80 percent of lead production is used for manufacturing lead-acid batteries for vehicles.

Due to its high density, lead is well suited for shielding against X-rays and gamma rays.

In the chemical industry, lead sheets are used for corrosion-resistant containers.

Lead-tin alloys are used as solder in electronics. Lead ammunition is increasingly being replaced by other non-toxic alternatives.

Special applications of lead include lead crystal glass, to improve optical quality, as well as counterweights in car wheels.

The lion’s share of primary lead production comes from galena ores, which can contain up to 85 percent lead. Common accompanying elements in galena ores are zinc and silver. The precious metal silver increases the economic viability of mining.

Galena is usually concentrated by flotation and then roasted to produce lead oxide (PbO).

Almost half of the global lead production is mined in China. Other important producing countries are Australia, the USA, and Peru.

The largest lead mine in the world is the Cannington Mine in Australia. It is owned by the mining company South32 and has been in operation since 1997.

The world’s largest lead producer is the Chinese company China Minmetals Corporation (also known as Minmetals), which controls large lead production capacities through subsidiaries such as MMG Limited.

Glencore operates, besides large lead mines in Australia, the world’s largest lead refinery in Port Pirie, also in Australia.

Global annual lead production amounts to approximately 13 million tons.

The replacement by plastics has reduced the use of lead in cable sheathing and cans.
Tin has replaced lead in solder used for drinking water systems.
The electronics industry is increasingly using lead-free solders and flat screens that do not require lead shielding.
Steel and zinc are common substitutes for lead in wheel weights.

Copper has been in use for more than ten thousand years and has significantly shaped social and technological development.

In prehistoric times, people discovered copper in its pure form in nature and fashioned tools from it. The first metalworking took place between 5500 and 2200 BCE in what is now Iraq, Iran, and Turkey. Ötzi, the mummy found in the Austrian Alps, was also equipped with a copper axe. Around 3000 BCE, the Bronze Age began. By adding tin, copper became harder, revolutionizing weapon-making. In Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China, bronze was also used for tools, jewelry, and coins.

The Latin name for copper, "cuprum," is derived from Cyprus, which was an important trading hub for the metal.

With the Industrial Revolution starting in the 18th century, copper was used for steam engines, telegraphs, generators, and motors. Europeans exploited copper mines in their colonies to meet demand.

Today, copper remains a ubiquitous raw material found in coins, electrical and power cables, and in high-tech applications.

The primary use of copper is in electrical applications, accounting for nearly 70 percent of total copper consumption. It is the preferred material for power transmission cables and wiring in the energy industry. In electronics, copper is omnipresent in cables, connectors, printed circuit boards, and more.

In the construction industry, copper is used in plumbing, electrical installations, and roofing.

Demand for copper is expected to rise significantly due to increasing electrification. Key drivers include e-mobility—electric vehicles contain about three times more copper than internal combustion engine cars—and renewable energy technologies.

Besides traditional sectors such as coinage, copper plays a crucial role in high-tech industries. It is used in transistors on chips and circuit boards. Copper cables are indispensable in high-speed data center networks, and copper is essential for wiring, generators, and transformers in wind and photovoltaic power plants.

Copper foils are also used in lithium-ion batteries.

Copper minerals can be divided into sulfide and oxide ores, with over 80 percent of copper produced from sulfide ores. Chalcopyrite, a sulfide mineral, is the most common copper mineral, containing about 34 percent copper by weight. It is the primary source of copper production worldwide. Other important copper minerals include bornite, chalcocite, and malachite.

The extraction process depends on the type of ore. Copper from sulfides is recovered through flotation, smelting, and refining. For oxides, only leaching and electrolysis are required, allowing for simpler and more energy-efficient processing.

Copper deposits are often associated with gold and silver.

A quarter of global copper production comes from Chile, home to the world’s largest copper mine: the Escondida Mine in the Atacama Desert, operated by the two largest mining companies BHP and Rio Tinto, along with the Japanese firm JECO. A major challenge is the high water demand in one of the driest regions on earth, which is sometimes met through seawater desalination plants.

Peru and the Democratic Republic of Congo are other important mining countries. The mines are mostly owned by foreign companies.

China is a key player. Jiangxi Copper is the world’s largest copper refiner. Chinese companies also control numerous mining areas in Africa and South America.

The largest individual producer is the Chilean state-owned company Codelco, though it faces declining ore grades. Freeport-McMoRan from the USA operates the Grasberg copper-gold open-pit mine in Indonesia in partnership with the Indonesian government. BHP and Glencore are further major copper producers.

Global annual copper production amounts to approximately 27 million tons.

Copper is highly recyclable and has one of the highest recycling rates. About one-third of copper demand is met through recycling. One of the leading copper recyclers is the German company Aurubis.

Aluminum replaces copper in car radiators, cooling and freezing pipes, electrical appliances, and power cables.
Glass fibers substitute copper in telecommunications applications.
Plastics replace copper in drain pipes, plumbing fixtures, and water pipes.
Titanium and steel are used instead of copper in heat exchangers.