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Written by Sabrina Heimrich on . Posted in Allgemein.

Beryllium

Cer • Ce • Atomic Number 58

Beryllium

Beryllium is a very hard and brittle lightweight metal. It is three times lighter than aluminum and six times stronger than steel. The element is also characterized by its natural resistance to corrosion, excellent electrical conductivity, and high heat capacity.

Due to these properties, beryllium is of great interest to the aerospace and defense industries. Despite its unique characteristics, beryllium is rarely used overall because of its high cost and toxicity.

In 2024, an estimated 360 tons of beryllium were mined worldwide. By far the most important producer is the USA, which also holds 60 percent of the world’s known reserves. Leading beryllium producers include Materion. Other mining countries are China, Mozambique, and Nigeria.

In the EU, USA, China, Japan, South Korea, and Russia, beryllium is considered a critical or strategic raw material.

These metals are very commonly used in industry and are therefore traded as futures contracts on the LME (London Metal Exchange).

  • History

    The element beryllium was discovered in 1798 by the French chemist Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin in the minerals beryl and emerald. In the 1920s, copper-beryllium alloys were first used in German telephone switchboard relays.

    The first commercially successful process for producing pure beryllium was developed in 1932, initially used in medical X-ray windows.

    Beryllium oxide ceramics were employed in insulating circuits of radio tubes.

    In the 1940s, the element found its place in the defense industry: in high-precision gyroscopic navigation and targeting instruments for the navy and air force, and in nuclear weapons as a neutron moderator.

    After World War II, demand for beryllium increased for use in telecommunications technologies, the automotive industry, and aerospace. A heat shield made of beryllium was onboard the Mercury space capsule during the first manned space flight in 1961.

    In the 1990s, new beryllium materials such as aluminum-beryllium metal matrix composites were developed. The applications of beryllium increasingly shifted from defense, aerospace, and aviation toward automotive electronics, IT, and energy production.

    Nickel-beryllium alloys in crash sensors improve the functionality of life-saving airbags.

  • Application

    Worldwide consumption of beryllium remains low. In 2024, an estimated 360 tons were produced. Of this, 21 percent is used in defense, aerospace, and aviation, 20 percent in industrial components, and 15 percent in the automotive industry. In the EU, beryllium is classified as a critical raw material.

    The majority of globally produced beryllium (about 80 percent) is used in copper alloys. The reliability of copper-beryllium alloys enables high-performance, electrically conductive connections for critical systems such as aircraft and medical electronics, airbag and anti-lock braking systems in vehicles, as well as fire suppression systems. In mobile phones and electronic devices, beryllium extends the device lifespan.

    As a pure metal, beryllium is used in medical X-ray windows and in highly precise navigation and targeting systems for the military.

    Beryllium ceramics are employed in photovoltaic cells, significantly increasing their efficiency.

    Beryllium also plays a role in nuclear research and power generation, serving both as a neutron moderator in nuclear power plants and as a neutron source. The experimental fusion reactor ITER in southern France is lined with beryllium plates that act as a protective layer. Beryllium is also essential for nuclear weapons production. Therefore, the United States enforces strict export controls on beryllium.

    Beryllium-containing alloys, in their solid form as found in end products, pose no special health risks. However, certain processing methods generate dust particles that, if inhaled, can cause serious lung diseases.

  • Occurence, Mining and Extraction

    There are about 30 known minerals containing beryllium. For economic mining, beryl and bertrandite are relevant. Beryl contains between three and five percent beryllium but is harder than bertrandite, which complicates refining. Therefore, most beryllium mines today exploit bertrandite deposits despite their lower beryllium content (0,3–1,5 percent).

    More than half of the world’s beryllium production comes from the USA. The largest deposit is located in the state of Utah and is operated by Materion. The proven and probable bertrandite reserves in Utah total approximately 19,000 tons of beryllium.

    Worldwide known beryllium reserves are estimated at over 100,000 tons, with 60 percent located in the USA. The largest deposits in the USA are found at Spor Mountain in Utah, McCullough Butte in Nevada, Black Hills in South Dakota, Sierra Blanca in Texas, Seward Peninsula in Alaska, and Gold Hill in Utah.

    Beryllium production in the USA includes mining, ore processing, manufacturing, distribution, and recycling of beryllium-containing products. Japan does not mine beryllium ores but imports them for its refineries. In Kazakhstan, beryllium is refined from large stockpiles dating back to the Soviet era.

    China has significantly increased its beryllium production in recent years, more than tripling it between 2015 and 2021. Given its strategic importance for defense and the military, China established a "Strategic Alliance for Technological Innovation in the Chinese Beryllium Industry" in 2020.

  • Substitution

    Since beryllium is expensive compared to other materials, it is used in applications where its properties are critical. In some cases, certain metal matrix or organic composites, high-strength aluminum alloys, pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide, steel, or titanium can replace beryllium metal or beryllium composites.

    Copper alloys with nickel and silicon, tin, titanium, or other alloying elements, or phosphor bronze alloys (copper-tin-phosphorus) can substitute for beryllium-copper alloys, although this may result in significant performance reductions.

    Aluminum nitride or boron nitride can replace beryllium oxide.

Beryllium, Be, lightweight metal, strategic metal, brittle metal, high-purity metal, nuclear applications, X-ray windows, metal properties, industrial uses, ISE AG metals, ISE AG

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Written by Sabrina Heimrich on . Posted in Allgemein.

Arsen

As • Atomic Number 33

Arsenic

Arsenic is located in the nitrogen group of the periodic table. It is classified as a metalloid. Arsenic rarely occurs in its native elemental form and is most commonly found in sulfidic ores such as realgar and orpiment. In its most stable elemental form, arsenic is a steel-gray, brittle solid with low thermal and electrical conductivity.

Arsenic is often associated with its use as a poison. The compound arsenite is water-soluble, odorless, tasteless, and lethal—traits that led to its use as a murder weapon in ancient times.

In its elemental form, arsenic is carcinogenic. The maximum concentration considered safe in drinking water is 0.01 ppm. The higher average content in seawater (approximately 0.024 ppm) leads to bioaccumulation in shellfish and crustaceans.

Arsenic can enter the environment in various ways and contaminate groundwater and drinking water, posing a growing global concern due to its toxicity.

Arsenic also plays a significant role in semiconductor manufacturing and as an alloying element. Despite its toxicity, arsenic compounds are still used in medical treatments.

The leading arsenic-producing countries are Peru, China, and Morocco.

The largest arsenic mine in the world is Real de Ángeles in Mexico, where arsenic is obtained as a by-product of zinc mining. Another major producer is the Yongzhou Mine in China.

Key companies involved in arsenic production include Yunnan Luoping Zinc & Electricity (China), Codelco (Chile), and Managem (Morocco).

  • History

    Historically, arsenic-containing minerals such as realgar, orpiment, and arsenolite (arsenic trioxide) have been known since ancient times. Therapeutic preparations of realgar and orpiment have been used in Traditional Chinese Medicinefor at least 2,400 years, for instance, to treat parasites or neurodermatitis. Records from ancient Greece and Rome also describe the use of arsenic compounds to treat asthma and skin conditions.

    The compound arsenite was already used in antiquity as a poison. One of the first documented arsenic poisonings is attributed to Nero. From the 17th century onwards, poisonings became increasingly common, only declining after James Marsh developed a reliable method for detecting arsenic in tissue in 1836.

    The discovery of elemental arsenic is often credited to Albertus Magnus, a bishop from Regensburg, although it was apothecary Johann Schroeder who first isolated arsenic using charcoal in 1649.

    In the late 18th century, Thomas Fowler developed a medicinal tincture known as Fowler’s solution, which was used as a general remedy for about 150 years. One of the most well-known arsenic-based drugs was arsphenamine, introduced by Hoechst in 1910 for the treatment of syphilis. For the parasitic disease sleeping sickness, Tryparsamide was used successfully from 1922, later replaced by melarsoprol, another arsenic-based compound. Despite its high toxicity and potentially lethal side effects, melarsoprol is still in use today due to a lack of alternatives.

    Since 2003, an arsenite-based drug has been approved in the USA and several European countries for treating acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), a rare form of leukemia that progresses rapidly and is fatal if untreated.

  • Application

    In 2024, an estimated 58,000 tons of arsenic trioxide were produced worldwide.

    The most important commercial compounds include arsenic oxides, also referred to as “white arsenic.” Arsenic oxides are the starting materials for most other arsenic compounds.

    The majority of arsenic is used as arsenic trioxide and diarsenic pentoxide, which are key components in numerous herbicides and pesticides. In the USA, large quantities of arsenic trioxide are used to produce arsenic acid, which is an important ingredient in the manufacture of wood preservatives for non-private use, such as for light poles, maritime applications, and retaining walls.

    Due to environmental risks, the use of arsenic-containing herbicides, pesticides, and wood preservatives is declining worldwide. In the EU, for example, their use is heavily restricted due to numerous bans and therefore plays only a minor role.

    The global consumption of metallic arsenic is relatively low, amounting to only a few hundred tons per year. The most important application of high-purity arsenic metal lies in the semiconductor industry, where it is used with silicon and germanium as well as in the form of gallium arsenide (GaAs) for diodes, lasers, and transistors.

    An important manufacturer of high-purity arsenic is the company PPM High Purity Metals from Saxony-Anhalt, which is owned by the wafer manufacturer Freiberger Compound Materials (FCM). However, the arsenic consumption for these applications accounts for only 0.1 percent of the EU’s demand.

    Seventy percent of the EU’s arsenic consumption goes into zinc production, 18 percent into the glass industry.

    Arsenic is also a component of alloys. In lead alloys, arsenic improves flow properties, hardens the material, and increases corrosion resistance. This is very important for the production of lead-based batteries and accumulators, but also for lead ammunition.

  • Occurence, Mining and Extraction

    Although arsenic can rarely occur in its native form as smaltite or flystone, it is mostly found in sulfide ores such as realgar and orpiment.

    The leading producing country is Peru, followed by China. Morocco ranks a distant third. 95 percent of the world’s production comes from these three countries.

    Arsenic is mainly produced as a by-product during the processing of various ores but is especially associated with copper-gold ores (Chile, Canada). It is also generated as a by-product during the roasting of copper, lead, and certain other metal ores as well as during the roasting of arsenopyrite and arsenic sulfide ores.

    Among the largest arsenic producers are Yunnan Copper and Hunan Gold Group in China, the Managem Group in Morocco, KazZinc in Kazakhstan, the Ural Mining and Metallurgical Company in Russia, and Umicore in Belgium.

    The most important producer of arsenic trioxide in the EU is Belgium. The country covers 67 percent of the EU’s arsenic demand. In 2022, Belgium produced 1000 tons of arsenic oxide.

  • Substitution

    Many semiconductor manufacturers are switching from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and silicon-based laterally diffused metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors to those with gallium nitride.

    Indium phosphide components can replace GaAs-based infrared laser diodes in certain wavelength applications. Helium-neon lasers compete with GaAs in visible laser diode applications.

    Silicon is the main competitor to GaAs in solar cell applications.

    In many defense industry applications, GaAs-based integrated circuits are used because of their unique properties, and there are no effective alternatives in these applications.

    In heterojunction bipolar transistors, GaAs is replaced by silicon-germanium in some applications.

Arsenic, As, metalloid, element 33, arsenic properties, industrial uses, toxic element, arsenic alloys, semiconductor dopant, arsenic compounds, arsenic occurrence, ISE AG metals, ISE AG

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Antimon

Sb • Atomic Number 51

Antimony

Antimony is a silver-white, shiny, brittle metalloid, similar to arsenic. Its name likely derives from the Latin antimonium, which in turn comes from the Arabic name for the mineral antimony sulfide: itmid.

Although antimony can be found in its elemental form in nature, it is much more commonly found as the mineral stibnite, also known as gray antimony glance or antimonite. The element symbol Sb for antimony originates from stibnite and is derived from the Latin stibium.

Antimony is used in brake alloys and is ubiquitous as a flame retardant additive. It plays a critical role in the defense industry. As an alloying element, it imparts greater hardness and penetration power to lead bullets.

China is by far the world’s leading producer of antimony. In 2023, 60,000 tonnes of antimony were mined at the Xikuangshan Mine (“Twinkling Star”) in Hunan Province.

Antimony, Sb, metalloid, element 51, flame-retardants, alloys, battery applications, semiconductor, antimony uses, industrial metal, ISE AG metals, ISE AG

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Zinc

Zn • Atomic Number 30

Zinc

The transition metal zinc is classified as a heavy metal. It is bluish-white, brittle at room temperature, and is characterized by its corrosion resistance as well as its role as an essential trace element. Zinc is one of the most abundant metals in the Earth's crust and is usually found in combined form.

The name zinc comes from the Middle High German word Zinke, meaning tooth or prong, referring to the jagged shape zinc forms when it solidifies.

Its main application is corrosion protection of steel through galvanization, as well as alloy production, especially in brass.

With one-third of global production, China is the largest zinc producer and also leads in zinc refining and processing.

The largest zinc mine in the world is located in Alaska, USA. The Red Dog Mine is operated by Teck Resources from Canada.

Nyrstar, a subsidiary of the Swiss group Trafigura specializing in zinc smelting, is the world’s largest zinc producer. Glencore, also based in Switzerland, is another major zinc producer that operates its own mines.

  • History

    Brass, an alloy of copper and the zinc ore calamine, was already used in ancient times for making coins, jewelry, and armor.

    However, zinc was long unknown as a pure metal. In India, zinc was first isolated by distillation as early as the 12th century.
    China began producing pure zinc for coins and art objects from the 16th century onward.

    In Europe, the German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf successfully isolated zinc as a pure element in 1746.

    Starting in 1758, the first European zinc smelter in Belgium began industrial production. Due to its corrosion resistance, zinc is used in various everyday items such as watering cans, sheets, pipes, cutlery, and coins.

    In the 19th century, Stanislas Sorel in France developed a galvanizing process to coat iron with zinc (hot-dip galvanizing). This revolutionized shipbuilding and the construction of weather-resistant steel parts. With the discovery of large zinc deposits in Germany, Belgium, and the USA, global zinc production increased tenfold between 1850 and 1900.

    At the beginning of the 20th century, zinc-carbon and zinc-air batteries became important energy storage devices.

    Since the 1920s, zinc has been recognized as an essential trace element and is used in medicinal ointments and sunscreens.

  • Application

    About half of the zinc production is used in the steel industry to galvanize steel and protect it from corrosion. Zinc alloys such as brass account for one-fifth of zinc consumption.
    The construction industry is one of the major consumers of zinc, using it for facade and roofing sheets as well as in the form of galvanized steel beams.

    An important inorganic zinc compound is zinc oxide, a direct semiconductor that absorbs UV light while remaining transparent to visible light. Zinc oxide is used in diodes, thin-film transistors (TFT), thin-film solar cells, piezoelectric transducers, sensors, light-emitting diodes, as well as optoelectronic and spintronic devices. It is also a key ingredient in sunscreens and medicinal zinc ointments.

    Other applications of zinc include batteries such as zinc-carbon and zinc-air batteries, button cells, and hearing aids.

  • Ocurrence

    Zinc sulfide ores such as sphalerite or wurtzite, containing about 65 percent zinc, are the most important source for industrial extraction. In addition, zinc carbonate (also known as calamine or smithsonite) is mined. Zinc ores are often associated with lead.

    With one-third of global production, China is the largest zinc producer and also leads in zinc refining and processing. Peru and Australia also extract significant amounts of zinc. Australia holds the world’s largest known zinc reserves, followed by China and Russia.

    The largest zinc mine in the world is located in Alaska, USA. The Red Dog mine is operated by Canadian company Teck Resources.

    Together with Glencore from Switzerland, Teck Resources dominates zinc mining.

    Nyrstar, a subsidiary of the Swiss group Trafigura, leads in zinc smelting and refining. It produces ten percent of the global market for refined zinc. Nyrstar operates Europe’s largest zinc refinery in Balen, Belgium, with additional sites in Australia and the USA.

    The Indian company Hindustan Zinc (HZL) is the largest integrated zinc producer. HZL, a subsidiary of the Vedanta Group, operates five mines and five zinc smelters in India.

    The global annual production amounts to around twelve million tons.
    About 30 percent of zinc is recovered through recycling.

  • Substitution

    Aluminum and plastics replace galvanized sheets in the automotive industry.
    Aluminum alloys, cadmium, paints, and plastic coatings substitute zinc coatings in other applications.
    Aluminum and magnesium alloys are important substitutes for zinc die-casting alloys.
    Many elements replace zinc in the chemical, electronics, and pigment industries.

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