In 1781, Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered tungstic acid in a mineral now known as scheelite. His compatriot Torbern Bergman concluded that a new metal could be produced from the acid.
The brothers and chemists Juan José and Fausto Elhuyar succeeded in doing so in 1783 by reducing wolframite from the Saxon Ore Mountains with charcoal.

The name tungsten goes back to the Freiberg mineralogist Georgius Agricola, who probably described a tungsten-containing mineral as early as the 16th century and gave it the Latin name “lupi spuma,” which means wolf foam. The term “tungsten,” commonly used in other languages, comes from Swedish and means “heavy stone.”

Due to its extremely high melting point, tungsten was initially difficult to process.

From the mid-19th century onwards, tungsten was used in steel alloys to manufacture harder tools.

At the end of the 19th century, with the advent of electric light, tungsten wire, which did not melt as quickly, replaced carbon filaments in light bulbs.

In the 20th century, tungsten carbide (WC) was developed for armor-piercing ammunition and extremely hard cutting tools.

Due to its exceptional physical properties, tungsten is used in a wide range of applications. Tungsten carbide is used in the manufacture of hard metals for cutting, mining, and wire drawing tools, as well as in the defense industry for armor-piercing ammunition, grenades, and armor plating.

In alloys, tungsten provides heat resistance in valves, turbine wheels of aircraft engines, and rocket nozzles, while also protecting against wear.

Tungsten is also used in electronics in electrodes, in the semiconductor industry for microchips, and in X-ray tubes.

Due to its density, tungsten is also used for radiation shielding.

Important ores include wolframite and scheelite.

Over 80 percent of tungsten is mined in China, which also has some of the largest tungsten deposits. The Xihuashan Mine in Jiangxi Province is the largest active tungsten mine in the world. It is operated by Tungsten High-Tech, a subsidiary of the state-owned China Minmetals Corporation.

After China, Vietnam is the second largest mining country for tungsten. The Nui Phao Mine in Vietnam is the largest tungsten mine outside China. It is operated by Masan Resources. Russia ranks third, but figures on production volumes are scarce.

There are also several tungsten producers in the EU. In Austria, Wolfram Bergbau und Hütten AG operates a small underground mine in the Alps. The company, which belongs to the Swedish Sandvik Group, obtains most of its raw material from recycling. In addition, there are smaller tungsten mines in operation in Portugal and Spain.

Global annual production amounts to around 80,000 tons.

The recycling of scrap is an important source for the tungsten industry.

Possible substitutes for tungsten carbides are hard metals based on molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide, or titanium carbide, ceramics, ceramic-metal composites, and tool steels. Most of these options reduce tungsten consumption rather than replacing it.
Possible substitutes for other applications include: molybdenum for certain tungsten rolled products; molybdenum steels for tungsten steels, although most molybdenum steels still contain tungsten.
Depleted uranium or lead replace tungsten or tungsten alloys in applications requiring high density or radiation shielding capabilities.
Depleted uranium alloys or hardened steel can substitute for tungsten carbides or tungsten alloys in armor-piercing projectiles.
In some applications, substitution would result in higher costs or compromised performance.

Physical Properties

Tungsten is a shiny white metal that is ductile in its pure state and has high hardness, density, and strength. Its density is almost as high as that of gold, its Brinell hardness is 250 HB, and its tensile strength ranges from 550-620 N/mm² (soft) to 1920 N/mm² (hard). The metal exists in a stable cubic body-centered α modification with a lattice constant of 316 pm at room temperature. This type of crystal structure is often referred to as the tungsten type. A substance known as a metastable β modification of tungsten (distorted body-centered cubic) is, however, the tungsten-rich oxide W₃O.

After carbon, tungsten has the second highest melting point of all chemical elements at 3422 °C. Its boiling point of 5555 °C is surpassed only by the rare metal rhenium at 5596 °C, which is 41 K higher.

The metal is a superconductor with a transition temperature of 15 mK.
.

Chemical Properties

Tungsten is a chemically very resistant metal that is hardly attacked even by hydrofluoric acid and aqua regia (at least at room temperature). However, it dissolves in mixtures of hydrochloric and nitric acid and molten mixtures of alkali nitrates and carbonates.

A total of 33 isotopes and 5 nuclear isomers of tungsten are known. Of these, five isotopes — ¹⁸⁰W, ¹⁸²W, ¹⁸³W, ¹⁸⁴W, and ¹⁸⁶W — occur naturally. Among them, the isotope ¹⁸⁴W has the highest natural abundance.

For a long time, all five natural isotopes were considered stable. However, in 2004, the CRESST experiment at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso succeeded, as a byproduct of its search for dark matter, in detecting that the isotope ¹⁸⁰W undergoes alpha decay. Its half-life is extremely long — about 1.8 trillion years — making this decay undetectable under normal laboratory conditions.

The radioactivity of this natural isotope is so low that it can be ignored for all practical purposes.
In contrast, the artificial radioactive isotopes of tungsten have much shorter half-lives, ranging from 0.9 millisecondsfor ¹⁸⁵W to 121.2 days for ¹⁸¹W.

As a powder or dust, it is easily flammable; in compact form, it is non-combustible.

Oxides

Tungsten forms several oxides. Between the initial compound:

• Tungsten(VI) oxide WO₃ – lemon yellow

and the final compound:

• Tungsten(IV) oxide WO₂ – brown

there are the following intermediate oxides:

• W₁₀O₂₉, blue-violet, homogeneity range WO₂.₉₂–WO₂.₈₈

• W₄O₁₁, red-violet, homogeneity range WO₂.₇₆–WO₂.₇₃

• W₁₈O₄₉, WO₂.₇₂

• W₂₀O₅₀, WO₂.₅₀

Other Compounds

• Sodium tungstate Na₂WO₄

• Zirconium tungstate ZrW₂O₈ – shows an anomaly upon heating.

• Tungsten bronzes MₓWO₃, where M = alkali, alkaline earth, or lanthanoid metal, ca. 0.3 < x < 0.9. These are electrically conductive and exhibit intense colors depending on metal content.

• Calcium tungstate CaWO₄, known as the mineral scheelite.

• Tungsten carbide WC, an extremely hard, metallic-like compound. There is also ditungsten carbide W₂C.

• Tungsten hexafluoride WF₆

• Lead tungstate PbWO₄

• Tungsten disulfide WS₂, used as a dry lubricant (similar to MoS₂).

Uses of the Compounds

Tungsten carbide is used as a neutron reflector in nuclear weapons to reduce the critical mass. Tungsten carbides (hard metals) are also used in machining due to their high hardness.

Tungstates are used to impregnate fabrics, making them flame-retardant.

Tungsten-based pigments are used in painting, as well as in the ceramics and porcelain industries.

Lead tungstate is used as a modern scintillator in particle physics.

General Information
Name, Symbol, Atomic Number	Tungsten, W, 74
Series	Transition metals
Group, Period, Block	6, 6, d
Appearance	Grayish-white, shiny
CAS Number	7440-33-7
Proportion in Earth’s crust	64 ppm
Atomic Properties
Atomic mass	183,84 u
Atomic radius (calculated)	135 (193) pm
Covalent radius	162 pm
Electron configuration	[Xe] 4f145d46s2
1. ionization energy	770 kJ/mol
2. ionization energy	1700 kJ/mol
Physical Properties
State of matter	Solid
Crystal structure	Body-centered cubic
Density	19,3 g/cm3 (20 °C)
Mohs hardness	7,5
Magnetism	Paramagnetic ( = 7,8 · 10−5)
Melting point	3695 K (3422 °C)
Boiling point	5828 K (5555 °C)
Molar volume	9,47 · 10−6 m3/mol
Heat of vaporization	824 kJ/mol
Heat of fusion	35,4 kJ/mol
Speed of sound	5174 m/s
Specific heat capacity	138 J/(kg · K)
Electrical conductivity	18,52 · 106 A/(V · m)
Thermal conductivity	170 W/(m · K)
Chemical Properties
Oxidation states	6, 5, 4, 3, 2
Standard electrode potential	−0,119 V (WO2 + 4H+ + 4e− → W + 2H2O)
Electronegativity (Pauling)	2,36
Isotopes
Isotop NH t1/2 ZA ZE (MeV) ZP 178W {syn.} 21,6 d ε 0,091 178Ta 179W {syn.} 37,05 min ε 1,060 179Ta 180W 0,13 % 1,8 · 1018 a α 2,516 176Hf 181W {syn.} 121,2 d ε 0,188 181Ta 182W 26,3 % Stable 183W 14,3 % Stable 184W 30,67 % Stable 185W {syn.} 75,1 d β− 0,433 185Re 186W 28,6 % Stable 187W {syn.} 23,72 h β− 1,311 187Re 188W {syn.} 69,4 d β− 0,349 188Re
NMR Properties
Isotope Spin γ (rad·T−1·s−1) Er(1H) fL (MHz) at B = 4,7 T 183W 1/2 1,128 · 107 1,07 · 10−5 4,166
Safety Information
GHS Hazard Identification (powder form)

• H- and P-statements: H: 228 EUH: none P:210–240–241–280–370+378

Hazard Labeling

Highly flammable

(F)

Powder — R and S phrases: R: 11 S: 43

Vanadium was discovered in 1801 by Spanish-Mexican mineralogist Andrés Manuel del Río and named panchromium or erythronium. However, it was subsequently considered to be impure chromium.

The element was rediscovered in 1830 by Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefström and named after Vanadis, the Scandinavian goddess of beauty and youth. The name was suggested because of the beautiful colors of vanadium compounds in solution.
English chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe first isolated the metal in 1867 by hydrogen reduction of vanadium dichloride.

American chemists John Wesley Marden and Malcolm N. Rich obtained it in 1925 in a purity of 99.7 percent by reducing vanadium pentoxide V₂O₅ with metallic calcium.

At the beginning of the 20th century, it was discovered that vanadium significantly increases the strength of steel. Henry Ford used it in the Model T (1908), which established vanadium's reputation as an alloying metal.

Today, vanadium is important for redox flow batteries, high-performance steels, and special alloys.

The most stable artificial isotopes are ⁴⁸V with a half-life of 16 days and ⁴⁹V with a half-life of 330 days. These are used as tracers. All other isotopes and nuclear isomers are very unstable and decay in minutes or seconds.

90 percent of vanadium demand comes from the steel industry, where vanadium is used in various steels and alloys for tools, axles, crankshafts, gears, and other critical components, as well as in jet engines and aircraft jets.

Vanadium is becoming increasingly important for vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB). VRFBs are particularly suitable for large-scale renewable energy storage facilities, as they enable highly secure and environmentally friendly medium- and long-term energy storage. However, the limited availability of vanadium as a raw material is a disadvantage of VRFB technology.

Other applications include high-tech applications such as superconductors, nuclear reactors, catalysts, ceramics, and glass.

Vanadinit

China is the world leader in vanadium mining, with a 60 percent share of the global market. The most important company is Pangang in Sichuan, a major titanium ore producer.

In Russia, vanadium is produced as a by-product of steel and iron ore processing in the Urals. The EVRAZ Group is a key global player alongside VSMPO-AVISMA.

The Bushveld Complex in South Africa is another important source of vanadium mining. Brazil and Australia also mine vanadium.

Global annual production is around 100,000 tons.

Physical Properties

Vanadium is a non-magnetic, tough, malleable, and distinctly steel-blue heavy metal with a density of 6.11 g/cm³. Pure vanadium is relatively soft, but becomes harder when mixed with other elements and then has high mechanical strength. In most properties, it resembles its neighbor in the periodic table, titanium. The melting point of pure vanadium is 1910 °C, but this is significantly increased by impurities such as carbon. With a carbon content of 10%, it is around 2700 °C. Like chromium and niobium, vanadium crystallizes in a body-centered cubic crystal structure with the space group and the lattice parameter a = 302.4 pm, as well as two formula units per unit cell.

Below a transition temperature of 5.13 K, vanadium becomes a superconductor. Like pure vanadium, alloys of vanadium with gallium, niobium, and zirconium are also superconductive. At temperatures below 5.13 K, vanadium, like the vanadium group metals niobium and tantalum, exhibits a previously unexplained spontaneous electrical polarization in tiny clusters of up to 200 atoms, which is otherwise only found in non-metallic substances.

Chemical Properties

Vanadium is a base metal and is capable of reacting with many non-metals. When exposed to air, it retains its metallic luster for weeks. When observed over longer periods of time, green rust becomes clearly visible. If vanadium is to be preserved, it must be stored under argon. When heated, it is attacked by oxygen and oxidized to vanadium(V) oxide. While carbon and nitrogen only react with vanadium when white-hot, the reaction with fluorine and chlorine takes place even at low temperatures.

Vanadium is usually stable at room temperature when exposed to acids and bases due to a thin, passivating oxide layer. It is only attacked by hydrofluoric acid and strongly oxidizing acids such as hot nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, and aqua regia.

A preliminary test is provided by the phosphorus salt bead, in which vanadium appears characteristically green in the reduction flame. The oxidation flame is faintly yellow and therefore too unspecific.

Qualitative detection of vanadium is based on the formation of peroxovanadium ions. For this purpose, an acidic solution containing vanadium in the oxidation state +5 is mixed with a small amount of hydrogen peroxide. This forms the reddish-brown [V(O₂)]³⁺ cation. This reacts with larger amounts of hydrogen peroxide to form the faint yellow peroxovanadium acid H₃[VO₂(O₂)₂].

Vanadium can be determined quantitatively by titration. To do this, a sulfuric acid solution containing vanadium is oxidized to pentavalent vanadium with potassium permanganate and then back-titrated with an iron(II) sulfate solution and diphenylamine as an indicator. It is also possible to reduce the pentavalent vanadium present with iron(II) sulfate to the tetravalent oxidation state and then perform potentiometric titration with potassium permanganate solution.

In modern analytics, vanadium can be detected using several methods. These include, for example, atomic absorption spectrometry at 318.5 nm and spectrophotometry with N-benzoyl-N-phenylhydroxylamine as a color reagent at 546 nm.

Biological significance: Vanadium compounds have various biological significance. Vanadium is characterized by the fact that it occurs both anionically as vanadate and cationically as VO₂⁺, VO²⁺, or V³⁺. Vanadates are very similar to phosphates and have correspondingly similar effects. Since vanadate binds more strongly to suitable enzymes than phosphate, it is able to block and thus control phosphorylation enzymes. This affects, for example, sodium-potassium ATPase, which controls the transport of sodium and potassium in cells. This blockage can be quickly reversed with desferrioxamine B, which forms a stable complex with vanadate. Vanadium also influences glucose uptake. It is able to stimulate glycolysis in the liver and inhibit the competing process of gluconeogenesis. This leads to a reduction in blood glucose levels. Therefore, research is being conducted to determine whether vanadium compounds are suitable for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, no clear results have been found yet. In addition, vanadium also stimulates the oxidation of phospholipids and suppresses the synthesis of cholesterol by inhibiting squalene synthase, a microsomal enzyme system in the liver. Consequently, a deficiency causes increased concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood plasma.

In plants, vanadium plays a role in photosynthesis. It is able to catalyze the reaction for the formation of 5-aminolevulinic acid without enzymes. This is an important precursor for the formation of chlorophyll.

Vanadium-containing enzymes occur in some organisms; for example, some species of bacteria have vanadium-containing nitrogenases for nitrogen fixation. These include species of the genus Azotobacter and the cyanobacterium Anabaenavariabilis. However, these nitrogenases are not as efficient as the more common molybdenum nitrogenases and are therefore only activated in the event of molybdenum deficiency. Other vanadium-containing enzymes are found in brown algae and lichens. These possess vanadium-containing haloperoxidases, which they use to build chlorine, bromine, or iodine organic compounds.

The function of vanadium, which is present in large quantities in sea squirts as metalloproteins called vanabins, is not yet known. It was originally assumed that vanadium serves as an oxygen transporter similar to hemoglobin; however, this has been proven to be incorrect.

Hazards

Like other metal dusts, vanadium dust is flammable. Vanadium and its inorganic compounds have been shown to be carcinogenic in animal experiments. They are therefore classified as carcinogenic category 2. If vanadium dust is inhaled by workers in metal smelting over a long period of time, it can lead to a condition known as vanadism. This recognized occupational disease can manifest itself in mucous membrane irritation, green-black discoloration of the tongue, and chronic bronchial, lung, and intestinal diseases.

Compounds: Vanadium can occur in compounds in various oxidation states. The most common states are +5, +4, +3, and +2, while +1, 0, −1, and −3 are less common. The most important and stable oxidation states are +5 and +4.

Aqueous solution

In aqueous solution, vanadium can easily be converted to different oxidation states. Since the various vanadium ions have characteristic colors, this results in color changes.

In acidic solution, pentavalent vanadium forms colorless VO₂⁺ ions, which initially become blue tetravalent VO²⁺ ions upon reduction. The trivalent state with V³⁺ ions is green in color, while the lowest state achievable in aqueous solution, the divalent V²⁺ ion, is gray-violet.

Oxygen compounds

The most important and stable vanadium-oxygen compound is vanadium(V) oxide V₂O₅. This orange-colored compound is used in large quantities as a catalyst for sulfuric acid production. It acts as an oxygen carrier and is reduced during the reaction to another vanadium oxide, vanadium(IV) oxide VO₂. Other well-known vanadium oxides are vanadium(III) oxide V₂O₃ and vanadium(II) oxide VO.

In alkaline solution, vanadium(V) oxide forms vanadates, salts with the anion VO₄³⁻ . In contrast to the analogous phosphates, however, the vanadate ion is the most stable form; hydrogen and dihydrogen vanadates as well as free vanadic acid are unstable and are only known in dilute aqueous solutions. When basic vanadate solutions are acidified, polyvanadates are formed instead of hydrogen vanadates, in which up to ten vanadate units are combined. Vanadates are found in various minerals, examples being vanadinite, descloisite, and carnotite.

Halogen compounds

Vanadium forms a variety of compounds with the halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. In the oxidation state +5, only one compound is known, vanadium(V) fluoride. In the oxidation states +4, +3, and +2, compounds exist with all halogens; only with iodine are compounds known in the states +2 and +3. However, only the chlorides vanadium(IV) chloride and vanadium(III) chloride are technically relevant. Among other things, they serve as catalysts for the production of ethylene-propylene-diene rubber.

Vanadium oxide chlorides

Vanadium also forms mixed salts with oxygen and chlorine, known as vanadium oxide chlorides. Vanadium(III) oxide chloride, VOCl, is a yellow-brown, water-soluble powder. Vanadium(IV) oxide chloride, VOCl₂, which is used in photography and as a textile dye, consists of green, hygroscopic crystal plates that dissolve in water with a blue color. Vanadium(V) oxide chloride, VOCl₃, is a yellow liquid that is very easily hydrolyzed by water. VOCl₃ serves as a catalyst component in low-pressure ethylene polymerization.

Other vanadium compounds

In organic vanadium compounds, vanadium reaches its lowest oxidation states of 0, −I, and −III. Metallocenes, known as vanadocenes, are particularly important here. These are used as catalysts for the polymerization of alkynes.

Vanadium carbide VC is used in powder form for plasma spraying and plasma powder welding, among other things. Vanadium carbide is also added to hard metals to reduce grain growth. This produces so-called cermets, which are particularly hard and wear-resistant.

General Information
Name, Symbol, Atomic Number	Vanadium, V, 23
Series	Übergangsmetalle
Group, Period, Block	5, 4, d-block
Appearance	Steel-gray metallic, with a bluish sheen
CAS Number	7440-62-2
Mass Fraction in Earth’s Crust	0,041 %
Atomic Properties
Atomic Mass	50,9415 u
Atomic Radius (calculated)	135 (171) pm
Covalent Radius	153 pm
Electron Configuration	[Ar] 3d3 4s2
1. Ionization Energy	650,9 kJ/mol
2. Ionization Energy	1414 kJ/mol
3. Ionization Energy	2830 kJ/mol
4. Ionization Energy	4507 kJ/mol
5. Ionization Energy	6298,7 kJ/mol
Physical Properties
State at 20 °C	Solid
Crystal Structure	Body-centered cubic (bcc)
Density	6,11 g/cm3 (at 20 °C)
Mohs Hardness	7,0
Magnetism	Paramagnetic ( = 3,8 · 10−4)
Melting Point	2183 K (1910 °C)
Boiling Point	3680 K (3407 °C)
Molar Volume	8,32 · 10−6 m3/mol
Heat of Vaporization	453 kJ/mol
Heat of Fusion	21,5[5] kJ/mol
Speed of Sound	4560 m/s at 293,15 K
Specific Heat Capacity	489 J/(kg · K)
Electrical Conductivity	5 · 106 A/(V · m)
Thermal Conductivity	31 W/(m · K)
Chemical Properties
Common Oxidation States	+5, +4 ,+3 ,+2
Electronegativity (Pauling scale)	1,63
Isotopes
Isotope NH t1/2 ZA ZE (MeV) ZP 48V {syn.} 15,9735 d ε 4,012 48Ti 49V {syn.} 330 d ε 0,602 49Ti 50V 0,25 % 1,5 · 1017 a ε 2,208 50Ti β− 1,037 50Cr 51V 99,75 % Stable
Safety Information
GHS Hazard Pictograms

H- and P-Statements H: No H-statements EUH: No EUH-statements P: No P-statements Hazard labeling (powder form)

Highly flammable	Irritant
(F)	(Xi)

R- and S-phrasesR: 17-36/37/38 (powder)S: 7-26-33-37-43-60 (powder)

A compound of titanium and oxygen was discovered in 1791 by the English chemist and mineralogist William Gregor and rediscovered and named independently in 1795 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth.

The metal was not isolated in its pure form until 1910 by New Zealand metallurgist Matthew A. Hunter through the reduction of titanium tetrachloride with sodium in an airtight steel cylinder. However, the process known as the Hunter process proved to be very inefficient, which is why the element was not used industrially for a long time and was only used in laboratories.

In 1938, Luxembourg metallurgist William Justin Kroll revolutionized titanium production by reducing titanium(IV) chloride with magnesium. The Kroll process, named after him, is still used today and enabled the commercial exploitation of titanium.

The first pilot plant was built in Boulder City in the USA in 1944. The Soviet titanium industry was born in 1953 with the founding of VSMPO-AVISMA, which is now the world leader in this field.

More than 95 percent of the world's titanium ore raw materials are used to produce titanium dioxide for the manufacture of pigments, which are mainly used in paints, paper, and plastics.

The rest of the titanium ore is processed into titanium sponge, which is the starting material for titanium metal and titanium-iron alloys.
The most important industries for titanium metal and titanium alloys are aerospace, which accounts for around half of consumption. Titanium is used in NASA and SpaceX rockets, for example. Titanium alloys are also important in military jets and combat submarines.

Due to its biocompatibility, titanium is an important material for medical technology: from artificial hip and knee joints to dental implants and pacemaker housings to surgical instruments.

In the chemical industry, titanium is used in pipes and containers for aggressive chemicals due to its high corrosion resistance.
The automotive industry is another consumer of titanium materials, especially in high-performance engines and motorsports.

This lightweight but very strong material is also used in sporting goods, eyeglass frames, architecture, and jewelry.

The two most important commercial minerals are ilmenite and rutile. Natural rutile, with a 95 percent titanium dioxide content, is significantly purer than ilmenite, whose processing requires more steps and the use of environmentally harmful chemicals. Nevertheless, the extraction of ilmenite from heavy sand dominates titanium ore production, accounting for 90 percent of the total.

China is the largest producer of titanium ores from ilmenite, followed by Mozambique and South Africa.

Australia is the largest producer of rutile, followed by South Africa.

Over 95 percent of titanium mineral goes into titanium dioxide production. The rest is used for the production of alloys and titanium metal.

The production of pure titanium is difficult due to its reactivity. Titanium cannot be obtained by the usual method of reducing the oxide with carbon, as this easily produces a very stable carbide and the metal also reacts strongly with oxygen and nitrogen at elevated temperatures. Therefore, special processes were developed that transformed titanium from a laboratory curiosity into an important commercially produced structural metal after 1950.

Global annual production of titanium sponge, the precursor to titanium metal, amounts to around 320,000 tons, while annual titanium dioxide production reaches almost 10 million tons. China is the leader in titanium sponge production, accounting for 60 percent of the world market, followed by Russia, Japan, and Kazakhstan.

The largest single producer of titanium sponge is Pangang from Sichuan, China. The Japanese manufacturer Toho Titanium and the Kazakh company Ust-Kamnogorsk are other important players.

Saudi Arabia and India are not yet significant producers, but have plans to significantly expand their titanium sponge production.

Few materials offer the strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance of titanium metal. In high-strength applications, titanium competes with aluminum, composite materials, intermetallic compounds, steel, and superalloys. Aluminum, nickel, special steels, and zirconium alloys can replace titanium in applications that require corrosion resistance.
Ground calcium carbonate, precipitated calcium carbonate, kaolin, and talc compete with titanium dioxide as white pigments.