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Samarium

Sm • Atomic Number 62

Samarium

Samarium is a silvery-white, shiny metal that is relatively hard and brittle. It is neither malleable nor ductile. Samarium belongs to the group of middle rare earth elements.

Its key characteristic is that it is paramagnetic at room temperature—it is attracted by an external magnetic field but does not retain permanent magnetism on its own. However, its alloys, particularly with cobalt, are among the strongest permanent magnetic materials known.

By far the most significant and economically important application of samarium is its use in samarium–cobalt (SmCo) magnets.

In 1839, Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac analyzed a mineral from the Russian Ural Mountains. He discovered a new oxide in the mineral, which he called “yttrium earth.” While he suspected it contained a new element, he could not clearly identify it.

In 1879, French chemist Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran worked with the so-called "didymium earth," which at the time was believed to be a single element. Through extensive fractional crystallization, he succeeded in observing a new, specific spectral line in the visible range, indicating the presence of a distinct element.

Shortly after Lecoq de Boisbaudran, Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson isolated an oxide from the same mineral, samarskite, which he believed to be identical to Lecoq de Boisbaudran’s samarium.

Later, both De Marignac and Lecoq de Boisbaudran confirmed that Nilson’s sample was in fact a mixture of samariumand a new element, which was later named gadolinium.

The name of the mineral and the element samarium derive from Colonel Samarsky, a Russian mining official who first discovered the mineral.

In 1903, German chemist Wilhelm Muthmann succeeded in producing metallic samarium via electrolysis.

  • Occurence

    The two most economically significant sources for the extraction of samarium are monazite and bastnäsite.

    The phosphate mineral monazite contains a higher concentration of samarium—around 1 to 3 percent—compared to bastnäsite. However, bastnäsite deposits are generally preferred, as they contain significantly lower levels of radioactive thorium, making processing and handling safer and less regulated.

    China is by far the world's largest producer of samarium.

  • Extraction

    Starting from monazite or bastnäsite, the separation of rare earth elements is carried out using ion exchange, solvent extraction, or electrochemical deposition. In a final processing step, high-purity samarium oxide is reduced to the metal using metallic lanthanum and subsequently purified by sublimation.

  • Application

    The most important and economically significant application of samarium is the production of samarium-cobalt magnets (SmCo magnets). These are among the strongest permanent magnets in the world and are indispensable for many high-tech applications.

    Samarium-Cobalt Magnet

    SmCo magnets are extremely resistant to demagnetization and remain stable even when exposed to strong external magnetic fields.

    Their greatest advantage is their high thermal stability: they retain their magnetic properties at elevated temperatures up to 350 °C—and even beyond. This makes them unrivaled in high-temperature applications.

    Unlike NdFeB magnets, SmCo magnets are corrosion-resistant and typically do not require any protective coating.

    Key applications for SmCo magnets include aerospace, military and defense technologies (e.g., radar systems, guidance and control systems), high-performance motors, and precision instruments such as traveling wave tubes (TWTs) used in radar and satellite communication.

    Additionally, samarium is used in neutron absorbers in nuclear reactors and as a catalyst in the chemical industry.

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Praseodymium

Pr • Atomic Number 59

Praseodymium

Praseodymium is a soft, silvery-white paramagnetic metal belonging to the light rare earth elements.

Its unique characteristic is its ability to absorb and scatter light in a very specific yellow-green region of the spectrum. This property is also the origin of its name, derived from the Greek word prásinos, meaning "leek green."

This makes it an important yellow coloring agent and filter in certain types of glass and ceramics.

In 1841, Carl Gustav Mosander extracted the rare earth didymium from lanthanum oxide. In 1874, Per Teodor Cleve observed that didymium was actually composed of two elements. In 1879, Lecoq de Boisbaudran isolated samarium from didymium, which he obtained from the mineral samarskite. In 1885, Carl Auer von Welsbach succeeded in separating didymium into praseodymium and neodymium, whose salts display different colors.

  • Occurence

    The most important host mineral for praseodymium is bastnäsite, which is the commercially most significant source of the light rare earth elements.

    China is the dominant producer. However, bastnäsite is also mined in the USA at the Mountain Pass mine. The Mount Weld mine, operated by the Australian company Lynas Rare Earths, is one of the richest deposits in the world. Lynas runs a large separation facility in Malaysia and is thus the most important alternative supplier of separated rare earths outside of China.

  • Extraction

    As with all lanthanides, the ores are first concentrated by flotation. Then the metals are converted into their respective halides and separated by fractional crystallization, ion exchange, or extraction. The metal is obtained by molten salt electrolysis or reduction with calcium.

  • Application

    The most important application of praseodymium is its use as a yellow pigment in ceramics and glass.

    This application takes advantage of its unique optical property to absorb and scatter light within a specific wavelength range, producing an intense and durable color.

    Praseodymium oxide is mixed with zirconium dioxide and fired at high temperatures. This process creates a vibrant, long-lasting yellow (praseodymium zircon yellow) that neither fades under light exposure nor is affected by high temperatures.

    This pigment is primarily used in the production of high-quality yellow ceramic tiles and artistic glazes.

    Since praseodymium is often not completely separated from neodymium, another important use is the praseodymium-neodymium mixture known as “didymium” in specialty glass. Didymium glass is commonly used for protective eyewear, which is indispensable for glassblowers and welders.

    General Information
    Name, Symbol, Atomic Number Praseodymium, Pr, 59
    Series Lanthanoid
    Groupe, Periode, Block La, 6, f
    Appearance Silvery white, yellowish
    CAS-Number 7440-10-0
    Abundance in Earth's crust 5.2 ppm
    Atomic Properties
    Atomic Mass 140.90765 u
    Atomic Radius 185 pm
    Covalent Radius 203 pm
    Electron Configuration [Xe] 4f³ 6s²
    1. Ionization Energy 527.0 kJ/mol
    2. Ionization Energy 1020 kJ/mol
    3. Ionization Energy 2086 kJ/mol
    4. Ionization Energy -
    Physical Properties
    State of Matter solid
    Crystal Structure Hexagonal
    Density 6.475 g/cm³ (at 25 °C)
    Magnetism

    Paramagnetic (χm = 2.9 * 10⁻³)
    Melting Point 1208 K (935 °C)
    Boiling Point 3563 K (3290 °C)
    Molar Volume 20.80 * 10⁻⁶ m³/mol
    Heat of Vaporization 330 kJ/mol
    Heat of Fusion 6.9 kJ/mol
    Electrical Conductivity 1.43 * 10⁶ A/(V·m)
    Thermal Conductivity 13 W/(m*K)

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Neodymium

ND • Atomic Number 60

Neodymium

Neodymium is a silvery-white, highly reactive metal that oxidizes easily in air. It belongs to the group of light rare earth elements.

Its most important property is its extremely strong permanent magnetism when alloyed with iron and boron. Based on this property, the most significant application by far is the production of neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets.

These magnets are found in a wide range of applications, making neodymium economically one of the most important rare earth elements.

Neodymium was first isolated together with praseodymium in 1885 by Carl Auer von Welsbach from didymium, which had been discovered by Carl Gustav Mosander. Pure metallic neodymium was not produced until 1925.

Neodym in hochleistungs Magneten in Windkrafträdern

Neodymium in High-Performance Magnets for Wind Turbines

  • Occurence

    Neodymium is primarily extracted from bastnäsite and monazite. The neodymium content in both minerals is approximately between 15 and 20 percent.

    Monazite has the disadvantage of often containing radioactive thorium, which complicates the further processing and storage of the ore.

    China is the leading producer, as with other rare earth elements. Another important source of bastnäsite is the Mountain Pass mine in the USA.

  • Extraction

    After an elaborate separation of neodymium-associated elements, the oxide is converted with hydrofluoric acid into neodymium fluoride and subsequently reduced to metallic neodymium using calcium, producing calcium fluoride. Residual calcium and impurities are removed by remelting under vacuum.

    Until 2024, MP Materials, the operator of the Mountain Pass mine in the USA, sent the mined bastnäsite ores to China for further processing. Since then, the company has operated its own processing facility. In 2025, as a protective measure, the U.S. Department of Defense became the majority owner of MP Materials.

  • Application

    By far the most important industrial application of neodymium is the production of permanent magnets, known as neodymium-iron-boron magnets (NdFeB magnets).

    NdFeB magnets have the highest magnetic energy density of all commercially available permanent magnets. They generate a very strong magnetic field, are small and lightweight, and significantly improve the efficiency and performance of electrical devices.

    These magnets are used in a wide range of key industries, with the automotive sector standing out, as permanent magnets are used in the electric motors of electric vehicles. They also play a crucial role in wind power plants: generators in modern wind turbines—especially direct-drive systems—use these magnets to convert rotational energy into electricity with high efficiency. A large offshore wind turbine can contain one ton or more of neodymium.

    Thanks to NdFeB magnets, device miniaturization is possible. They are found in speakers, headphones, and hard drives.

    Additionally, neodymium is used in glass dyes (e.g., welding goggles) and in lasers (Nd:YAG lasers).

    Neodymium Nickel Magnets

    General Information
    Name, Symbol, Atomic Number Neodymium, Nd, 60
    Series Lanthanoid
    Groupe, Periode, Block La, 6, f
    Appearance Silvery white, yellowish
    CAS-Number 7440-00-8
    Abundance in Earth's crust 22ppm
    Atomic Properties
    Atomic Mass 144.24 u
    Atomic Radius 185 pm
    Covalent Radius 201 pm
    Electron Configuration [Xe] 4f⁴ 6s²
    1. Ionization Energy 533.1 kJ/mol
    2. Ionization Energy 1040 kJ/mol
    3. Ionization Energy 2130 kJ/mol
    4. Ionization Energy -
    Physical Properties
    State of Matter solid
    Crystal Structure Hexagonal
    Density 7.003 g/cm³ (at 25 °C)
    Magnetism

    Paramagnetic (χm = 3.6 * 10⁻³)
    Melting Point 1297 K (1024 °C)
    Boiling Point 3373 K (3100 °C)
    Molar Volume 20.59 * 10⁻⁶ m³/mol
    Heat of Vaporization 285 kJ/mol
    Heat of Fusion 7.1 kJ/mol
    Electrical Conductivity 1.56 * 10⁶ A/(V·m)
    Thermal Conductivity 17 W/(m*K)

Neodymium, Nd, rare earth element, lanthanide, silvery-white metal, permanent magnets, NdFeB magnets, wind turbines, electric motors, element 60, ISE AG metals, rare earth metals, magnet applications, Neodymium extraction and uses, ISE AG

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Lutetium

LU • Atomic Number 71

Lutetium

Lutetium is a silvery, lustrous metal and the last and heaviest element in the lanthanide series. It belongs to the group of heavy rare earth elements.

It is the rarest and most difficult-to-extract element among the rare earths. Pure lutetium oxide or metallic lutetium is one of the most valuable rare-earth materials.

One of the most notable properties of lutetium is its exceptionally high hardness and density for a rare-earth metal.

Its main application is in nuclear medicine.

Lutetium was discovered independently in 1905 by three scientists — Carl Auer von Welsbach, Charles James, and Georges Urbain — the latter naming it after Lutetia, the ancient Roman name for Paris.

In German-speaking countries, it was commonly known as Cassiopeium (chemical symbol Cp) until 1949.

  • Occurrence

    Xenotime is the most important mineral source of lutetium. It preferentially concentrates the heavy rare earth elements (including yttrium). In xenotime, lutetium is often present in higher concentrations than in other minerals.

    The main producing country is China.

  • Mining

    After an elaborate separation of the other accompanying rare-earth elements, the oxide is converted into lutetium fluoride using hydrofluoric acid. This fluoride is then reduced with calcium, forming calcium fluoride and metallic lutetium.
    Remaining calcium residues and impurities are removed by an additional vacuum remelting process.

  • Application

    The most important and significant use of lutetium is in modern medicine, particularly in cancer therapy.

    Lutetium-177 (¹⁷⁷Lu) is a radioactive isotope used as a theranostic agent — a term that combines therapy and diagnostics, describing a revolutionary approach in oncology.

    For diagnostic purposes, lutetium emits a small amount of gamma radiation, making tumors visible to physicians via a SPECT camera (Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography).

    For therapy, ¹⁷⁷Lu emits beta radiation (β⁻ particles). These particles have precisely the right energy to selectively destroy cancer cells while leaving the surrounding healthy tissue largely unharmed.

    Special applications of lutetium include its use in scintillators (detectors) for cancer diagnostics. Lutetium orthosilicate (LSO) and lutetium yttrium orthosilicate (LYSO) are extremely efficient crystals used in medical PET scanners (Positron Emission Tomography).

    In addition, lutetium compounds serve as highly active catalysts in the petrochemical industry, for example in polymerization and petroleum cracking processes.

    General Information
    Name, Symbol, Atomic Number Lutetium, Lu, 71
    Series Lanthanide
    Groupe, Periode, Block La, 6, f
    Appearance Silvery white
    CAS-Number 7439-94-3
    Abundance in Earth's crust 0.7 ppm
    Atomic Properties
    Atomic Mass 174.967 u
    Atomic Radius 175 pm
    Covalent Radius 187 pm
    Electron Configuration [Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d¹ 6s²
    1. Ionization Energy 523.5 kJ/mol
    2. Ionization Energy 1340 kJ/mol
    3. Ionization Energy 2022.3 kJ/mol
    4. Ionization Energy -
    Physical Properties
    State at 20 °C Solid
    Crystal Structure Hexagonal
    Density 9.84 g/cm³ (25 °C)
    Magnetism

    Paramagnetic (χm = 0.0)
    Melting Point 1925 K (1652 °C)
    Boiling Point 3675 K (3402 °C)
    Molar Volume 17.78 × 10⁻⁶ m³/mol
    Heat of Vaporization 415 kJ/mol
    Heat of Fusion 22.0 kJ/mol
    Electrical Conductivity 1.72 * 10⁶ A/(V·m)
    Thermal Conductivity 16 W/(m*K)

  • Unique Properties

    The silvery-gray metal is very soft, highly ductile, and malleable. In dry air, lutetium is relatively stable, but in moist air, it tarnishes to a gray color. At elevated temperatures, it burns to form the sesquioxide Lu₂O₃. It reacts very slowly with water, producing hydrogen gas and forming the hydroxide. Lutetium dissolves in mineral acids with the evolution of hydrogen.

    In its compounds, lutetium occurs exclusively in the oxidation state +3. The Lu³⁺ cations form colorless solutions in water.

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